MINISTRY OF HEALTH OF UKRAINE The Higher State Educational Department of Ukraine
«Ukrainian Medical Stomatological Academy»
The Chair of Ukrainian Studies and Humanities
E.N. Shevchenko, V.I. Vladymyrova, V.G. Yufymenko
BASICS OF PSYCHOLOGY.
BASICS OF PEDAGOGICS
COURSE OF LECTURES FOR FOREIGN STUDENTS
POLTAVA
УДК 37.015.3+378.14 ББК 88+74]:5я73 В57
Methodical instructions were worked out by:
E. N. Shevchenko - Candidate of Pedagogical Science, Assistant;
V. I. Vladymyrova - Senior Assistant;
V. G. Yufymenko – Senior Assistant
.Reviewer:
Sedych K.V. - Doctor of Psychological Science, M.D., Prof., Head of
Dep. of Psychology Poltava National Pedagogical University named after V.G. Korolenko;
Lutfullin V. S. - Candidate of Pedagogical Science, Associate Prof.
of Poltava National Pedagogical University named after V.G. Korolenko.
Methodical instructions are recommended for printing by Central methodical commission of The higher state educational department of Ukraine «Ukrainian medical stomatological academy».
Shevchenko E.N., Vladymyrova V.I., V. G. Yufymenko В57 Basics of psychology. Basics of pedagogics.
Methodical instructions for independent work of students of medical and
stomatological departments / Shevchenko E.N., Vladymyrova V.I., V. G. Yufymenko. – Poltava, 2016. – 40 p.
Methodical instructions for independent work of students on basics of
psychology and essentials of pedagogics were prepared according to the acting academic curriculum (2014).
УДК 37.015.3+378.14
ББК 88+74]:5я73
CALENDAR-THEMATIC PLAN of lectures
the course “Basics of Psychology. Basics of Pedagogy” for foreign students of the first year stomatological department
№ TOPIC HOURS
1. Subject of Psychology and its Tasks. 2
2. The concept of personality. Personality and activities.
Psychological compatibility and conflict in interpersonal relations. Consulting in the context of incurable disease, death. The concept of counseling, counseling skills, ethical principles. Features counseling those affected by the fighting.
2
3. Characteristics of the main features of attention, sensation and perception.
The concept and characteristics of memory, thought and imagination.
2
4. Characteristics of emotional-volitional personality.
Individual and typological properties of the personality.
2
5. General characteristics of the main categories of pedagogy. 2
METHODICAL DEVELOPMENT OF LECTURE ON THE SUBJECT
“BASICS OF PSYCHOLOGY. BASICS OF PEDAGOGICS”
Subject Basics of psychology. Basics of pedagogics.
Module № 1 Basics of psychology
Substantial module № 1 Basics of psychology.
Topic of lecture Subject of psychology and its tasks
Course I
Faculty Stomatological. Medical.
Number of class periods: 2 hours
1. Scientific and methodical justification of a subject
Relevance of a subject:
the knowledge of this subject will help students to understand history of development of psychological science, importance of psychological preparation in practical activities of future doctor.2. Specific aims:
to find out essence of psychological science, its subject, tasks; emergence and development; communication of psychology with other sciences; the main tendencies of development of the psychological phenomena and knowledge in the modern world.3. Purposes of development of the identity of future expert:
awareness of the importance of psychology and pedagogical impact of the doctor by students on patients.4. Basic knowledge, abilities, skills necessary for studying of a subject:
Names of the previous disciplines Received skills
Biology To classify methods of psychology and to
know specifics of their application
5. Plan and organization of structure of lecture
№ Main stages of lecture
Type of Lecture. The Ways of students’
activization. materials of methodical providing
Distribution of the time
1.
Preparatory stage
The knowledge of this subject will help students to understand history of development of psychological science, importance of psychological preparation in practical activities of future doctor.
Specific aims: to find out essence of psychological science, its subject, tasks;
emergence and development; communication of psychology with other sciences; the main tendencies of development of the psychological phenomena and knowledge in the modern world.
5 %
Main stage
Introductory lecture85%-90%
2.
Plan1. Psychology as a Science.
2. The Most Important Approaches (Schools) of Psychology.
3. Methods of Psychology.
4. Common Psychology and its Place in the Professional Activity of a Doctor.
3.
Final stage
Recommended literature:
1. Muhina V.S. Vozrastnaya psychology //
Phenomenology development: a textbook for university students zavedeniy. - M. : Izdat.Center. "Academy", 13th ed – -2011.
– 656 р.
2. Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J.C. (1963).
Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Chicago: Rand McNally.
3. Heine, S. J. (2010). Cultural psychology. In S. T. Fiske, D. T. Gilbert, & G. Lindzey (Eds.),
4. Handbook of social psychology (5th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 14–64). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
5. Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Pyschometric theory.
New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
6. Rosenthal, R., & Fode, K. L. (1963). The effect of experimenter bias on the performance of the albino rat. Behavioral Science, 8, 183–189.
7. Stangor, C. (2011). Research methods for the behavioral sciences (4th ed.). Mountain View, CA: Cengage.
8. http://www.answers.com/ topic/john-b- watson;
9. http://www.bookrags.com/research/watson- john-broadus-1878-1958-geca
10. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freud 11. http://en.wikipcdia.org/wiki/
Wilhelm_Wundt
5 %
6. Content of lecture:
1. Psychology as a Science
Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. The word psychology comes from Greek znd consists of psyche, meaning life, and logos, meaning explanation.
Psychology is a field of knowledge about inner world of a person. It is one of the sciences of a human being.
Subject of psychology – is an activity of humans and psychic processes and abilities; task of psychology is to discover the laws of appearing development and precedence of medical activity of human, establishment of its psychical abilities, to figure out the life meaning of psychic and with its help to give better chances to control it. To form it in accordance of society’s needs.
Methods of psychology – are the methods of spectating and experiment. Spectating becomes a method only if it does not only describe events and occurrences, but makes a step to explanation of their psychic nature. The essence of spectating is in not only the registration of facts but and in scientific explanation of reasons of them.
2. The Most Important Approaches (Schools) of Psychology
The first psychologists were philosophers, but the field became more empirical and objective as more sophisticated scientific approaches were developed and employed.
Some basic questions asked by psychologists include those about nature versus nurture, free will versus determinism, accuracy versus inaccuracy, and conscious versus unconscious processing.
Structuralism. Uses the method of introspection to identify the basic elements or structures of psychological experience.
Wilhelm Wundt, Edward B. Titchener.
Functionalism. Attempts to understand why animals and humans have developed the particular psychological aspects that they currently possess.
William James.
Psychodynamic. Focuses on the role of our unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories and our early childhood experiences in determining behavior.
Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erickson.
Behaviorism. Based on the premise that it is not possible to objectively study the mind, and therefore that psychologists should limit their attention to the study of behavior itself.
John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner.
Cognitive. The study of mental processes, including perception, thinking, memory, and judgments.
Hermann Ebbinghaus, Sir Frederic Bartlett, Jean Piaget.
Social-cultural. The study of how the social situations and the cultures in which people find themselves influence thinking and behavior.
Fritz Heider, Leon Festinger, Stanley Schachter.
***
Early Psychologists. The earliest psychologists were the Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle. Plato believed that much knowledge was innate, whereas Aristotle thought that each child was born as an empty slate and that knowledge was primarily acquired through learning and experience.
Structuralism.Wundts research in his laboratory in Liepzig on the nature of consciousness itself. Wundt and his students believed that it was possible to analyze the basic elements of the mind and to classify our conscious experiences scientifically. Wundt began the field known as structuralism of psychology whose goal was to identify the basic elements or structures of psychological experience. Its goal was to create a periodic table of the elements of sensations, similar to the periodic table of elements that had recently been created in chemistry.
Structuralists used the method of introspection to attempt to create a map of the elements of consciousness. Introspection involves asking research participants to describe exactly what they experience as they work on mental tasks, such as viewing colors, reading a page in a book, or performing a math problem. A participant who is reading a book might report, for instance, that he saw some black and colored straight and curved marks on a white background. In other
studies the structuralists used newly invented reaction time instruments to systematically assess not only what the participants were thinking but how long it took them to do so. Wundt discovered that it took people longer to report what sound they had just heard than to simply respond that they had heard the sound. These studies marked the first time researchers realized that there is a difference between the sensation of a stimulus and the perception of that stimulus, and the idea of using reaction times to study mental events has now become a mainstay of cognitive psychology.
Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener helped create the structuralist school of psychology. Their goal was to classify the elements of sensation through introspection.
Perhaps the best known of the structuralists was Edward Bradford Titchener. Titchener was a student of Wundt who came to the United States in the late 1800s and founded a laboratory at Cornell University. In his research using introspection, Titchener and his students claimed to have identified more than 40,000 sensations, including those relating to vision, hearing, and taste.
An important aspect of the structuralist approach was that it was rigorous and scientific.
The research marked the beginning of psychology as a science, because it demonstrated that mental events could be quantified. But the structuralists also discovered the limitations of introspection. Even highly trained research participants were often unable to report on their subjective experiences. When the participants were asked to do simple math problems, they could easily do them, but they could not easily answer how they did them. Thus the structuralists were the first to realize the importance of unconscious processesthat many important aspects of human psychology occur outside our conscious awareness, and that psychologists cannot expect research participants to be able to accurately report on all of their experiences.
Functionalism and Evolutionary Psychology. In contrast to Wundt, who attempted to understand the nature of consciousness, the goal of William James and the other members of the school of functionalism was to understand why animals and humans have developed the particular psychological aspects that they currently possess. For James, ones thinking was relevant only to ones behavior.
James and the other members of the functionalist school were influenced by Charles Darwins (1809-1882) theory of nature selection, which proposed that the physical characteristics of animals and human evolved because they were useful, or functional. The functionalists believed that Darwins theory applied to psychological characteristicts too. Just as some animals have developed strong muscles to allow them to run fast, the human brain, so functionalists thought, must have adapted to serve a particular function in human experience.
The functionalist school of psychology, founded by the American psychologist William James, was influenced by the work of Charles Darwin.
Evolutionary psychology accepts the functionalists basic assumption, namely that many human psychological systems, including memory, emotion, and personality, serve key adaptive functions. Evolutionary psychologists use evolutionary theory to understand many different behaviors including romantic attraction, stereotypes and prejudice, and even the causes of many psychological disorders.
A key component of the ideas of evolutionary psychology is fitness. Fitness refers to the extent to which having a given characteristic helps the individual organism survive and reproduce at a higher rate than do other members of the species who do not have the characteristic. Fitter organisms pass on their genes more successfully to later generations, making the characteristics that produce fitness more likely to become part of the organisms nature than characteristics that do not produce fitness. For example, it has been argued that the emotion of jealousy has survived over time in men because men who experience jealousy are more fit than men who do not. According to this idea, the experience of jealously leads men to be more likely to protect their mates and guard against rivals, which increases their reproductive success.
Despite its importance in psychological theorizing, evolutionary psychology also has
some limitations. One problem is that many of its predictions are extremely difficult to test.
Unlike the fossils that are used to learn about the physical evolution of species, we cannot know which psychological characteristics our ancestors possessed or did not possess; we can only make guesses about this. Because it is difficult to directly test evolutionary theories, it is always possible that the explanations we apply are made up after the fact to account for observed data.
Nevertheless, the evolutionary approach is important to psychology because it provides logical explanations for why we have many psychological characteristics.
Psychodynamic Psychology. Perhaps the school of psychology that is most familiar to the general public is the psychodynamic approach to understanding behavior, which was championed by Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939) and his followers. Psychodynamic psychology is an approach to understanding human behavior that focuses on the role of unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories. Freud developed his theories about behavior through extensive analysis of the patients that he treated in his private clinical practice. Freud believed that many of the problems that his patients experienced, including anxiety, depression, and sexual dysfunction, were the result of the effects of painful childhood experiences that the person could no longer remember.
Sigmund Freud and the other psychodynamic psychologists believed that many of our thoughts and emotions are unconscious. Psychotherapy was designed to help patients recover and confront their lost memories.
These and others who follow the psychodynamic approach believe that it is possible to help the patient if the unconscious drives can be remembered, particularly through a deep and thorough exploration of the persons early sexual experiences and current sexual desires. These explorations are revealed through talk therapy and dream analysis, in a process called psychoanalysis.
The founders of the school of psychodynamics were primarily practitioners who worked with individuals to help them understand and confront their psychological symptoms. Although they did not conduct much research on their ideas, and although later, more sophisticated tests of their theories have not always supported their proposals, psychodynamics has nevertheless had substantial impact on the field of psychology, and indeed on thinking about human behavior more generally. The importance of the unconscious in human behavior, the idea that early childhood experiences are critical, and the concept of therapy as a way of improving human lives are all ideas that are derived from the psychodynamic approach and that remain central to psychology.
Behaviorism is a school of psychology that is based on the premise that it is not possible to objectively study the mind, and therefore that psychologists should limit their attention to the study of behavior itself. Behaviorists believe that the human mind is a black box into which stimuli are sent and from which responses are received. They argue that there is no point in trying to determine what happens in the box because we can successfully predict behavior without knowing what happens inside the mind. Furthermore, behaviorists believe that it is possible to develop laws of learning that can explain all behaviors.
The first behaviorist was the American psychologist John B. Watson (1878 – 1958).
Watson was influenced in large part by the work of the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849 – 1936), who had discovered that dogs would salivate at the sound of a tone that had previously been associated with the presentation of food. Watson and the other behaviorists began to use these ideas to explain how events that people and other organisms experienced in their environment (stimuli) could produce specific behaviors (responses). For instance, in Pavlovs research the stimulus (either the food or, after learning, the tone) would produce the response of salivation in the dogs.
In his research Watson found that systematically exposing a child to fearful stimuli in the presence of objects that did not themselves elicit fear could lead the child to respond with a fearful behavior to the presence of the stimulus. In the best known of his studies, an 8-month-old boy named Little Albert was used as the subject. Here is a summary of the findings:
The boy was placed in the middle of a room; a white laboratory rat was placed near him and he was allowed to play with it. The child showed no fear of the rat. In later trials, the researchers made a loud sound behind Alberts back by striking a steel bar with a hammer whenever the baby touched the rat. The child cried when he heard the noise. After several such pairings of the two stimuli, the child was again shown the rat. Now, however, he cried and tried to move away from the rat.
In line with the behaviorist approach, the boy had learned to associate the white rat with the loud noise, resulting in crying.
The behaviorists made substantial contributions to psychology by identifying the principles of learning. Although the behaviorists were incorrect in their beliefs that it was not possible to measure thoughts and feelings, their ideas provided new ideas that helped further our understanding regarding the nature-nurture debate as well as the question of free will. The ideas of behaviorism are fundamental to psychology and have been developed to help us better understand the role of prior experiences in a variety of areas of psychology.
Cognitive psychology is a field of psychology that studies mental processes, including perception, thinking, memory, and judgment. These actions correspond well to the processes that computers perform.
Although cognitive psychology began in earnest in the 1960s, earlier psychologists had also taken a cognitive orientation. Some of the important contributors to cognitive psychology include the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850 – 1909), who studied the ability of people to remember lists of words under different conditions, and the English psychologist Sir Frederic Bartlett (1886 – 1969), who studied the cognitive and social processes of remembering.
Bartlett created short stories that were in some ways logical but also contained some very unusual and unexpected events. Bartlett discovered that people found it very difficult to recall the stories exactly, even after being allowed to study them repeatedly, and he hypothesized that the stories were difficult to remember because they did not fit the participants expectations about how stories should go. The idea that our memory is influenced by what we already know was also a major idea behind the cognitive-developmental stage model of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980). Other important cognitive psychologists include Donald
E. Broadbent (1926 – 1993), Daniel Kahneman (1934), George Miller (1920), Eleanor Rosch (1938), and Amos Tversky (1937 – 1996).
Cognitive psychologists work to understand how people learn, remember, and make judgments about the world around them.
Social-Cultural Psychology. A final school, which takes a higher level of analysis and which has had substantial impact on psychology, can be broadly referred to as the social-cultural approach. The field of social-cultural psychology is the study of how the social situations and the cultures in which people find themselves influence thinking and behavior. Social-cultural psychologists are particularly concerned with how people perceive themselves and others, and how people influence each others behavior. For instance, social psychologists have found that we are attracted to others who are similar to us in terms of attitudes and interests, that we develop our own beliefs and attitudes by comparing our opinions to those of others , and that we frequently change our beliefs and behaviors to be similar to those of the people we care abouta process known as conformity.
An important aspect of social-cultural psychology are socialnormsthe ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving that are shared by group members and perceived by them as appropriate . Norms include customs, traditions, standards, and rules, as well as the general values of the group. Many of the most important social norms are determined by the culture in which we live, and these cultures are studied by cross-cultural psychologists. A culture represents the common set of social norms, including religious and family values and other moral beliefs, shared by the people who live in a geographical region . Cultures influence every aspect of our lives, and it is not inappropriate to say that our culture defines our lives just as much as does our evolutionary experience.
Main stages of psychology evolution
Stage IV
Psychology as a science of the facts, regularities and mechanisms of psyche
It was formed on the basis of philosophy of dialectal materialism; the foundation of the modern psychology is a theory of environment reflection.
Stage III
Psychology as a science of behaviour
It cames from the XX-th century; the main objective of psychology is observing everything what can be seen;
therefore it is behaviour, deeds and reaction of a man.
But the motives are left out of account.
Stage II
Psychology as a science of consciousness
It appeared in the XVII-th century due to the develioment of natural philisophy. Capacity of thinking feeling, wanting was called consciousness. Observing a man and describing the facts were considered to be the main research methods.
Stage I
Psychology as a science of a soul
This definition of psychology has existed for more than 2 thousand years. With the help of a soul it was tried to explain many unknown facts in a human life.
3. Methods of Psychology.
Method is a way, made or means of scientific perception of psychic events and its regularities.
Psychologists use the scientific method to generate, accumulate, and report scientific knowledge.
Basic research, which answers questions about behavior, and applied research, which finds solutions to everyday problems, inform each other and work together to advance science.
Research reports describing scientific studies are published in scientific journals so that other scientists and laypersons may review the empirical findings.
Organizing principles, including laws, theories and research hypotheses, give structure and uniformity to scientific methods.
Concerns for conducting ethical research are paramount. Researchers assure that participants are given free choice to participate and that their privacy is protected. Informed consent and debriefing help provide humane treatment of participants.
A cost-benefit analysis is used to determine what research should and should not be allowed to proceed.
Descriptive, correlational, and experimental research designs are used to collect and analyze data.
Descriptive designs include case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observation. The goal of these designs is to get a picture of the current thoughts, feelings, or behaviors in a given group of people. Descriptive research is summarized using descriptive statistics.
Correlational research designs measure two or more relevant variables and assess a relationship between or among them. The variables may be presented on a scatter plot to visually show the relationships. The Pearson Correlation Coefficient (r) is a measure of the strength of linear relationship between two variables.
Common-causal variables may cause both the predictor and outcome variable in a correlational design, producing a spurious relationship. The possibility of common-causal variables makes it impossible to draw causal conclusions from correlational research designs.
Experimental research involves the manipulation of an independent variable and the measurement of a dependent variable. Random assignment to conditions is normally used to create initial equivalence between the groups, allowing researchers to draw causal conclusions.
4. Common Psychology and its Place in the Professional Activity of a Doctor Biopsychology and neuroscience. This field examines the physiological bases of behavior in animals and humans by studying the functioning of different brain areas and the effects of hormones and neurotransmitters on behavior.
Most biopsychologists work in research settingsfor instance, at universities, for the federal government, and in private research labs.
Clinical and counseling psychology. These are the largest fields of psychology. The focus is on the assessment, diagnosis, causes, and treatment of mental disorders.
Clinical and counseling psychologists provide therapy to patients with the goal of improving their life experiences. They work in hospitals, schools, social agencies, and in private practice. Because the demand for this career is high, entry to academic programs is highly competitive.
Medical psychology studies psychological aspects of activity of a doctor and behavior of a patient. It can be divided on neuropsychology, which studies the correlation of psychic and physiology; psychopharmacology, which studies the influence of healing herbs on human psychic; psychotherapy, which studies and uses the methods of influence on human psychic and psycho hygiene which develops method of keeping the psychical health. Medical psychology grounds on knowing the laws of human psychic.
Cognitive psychology. This field uses sophisticated research methods, including reaction time and brain imaging to study memory, language, and thinking of humans.
Cognitive psychologists work primarily in research settings, although some (such as those who specialize in human-computer interactions) consult for businesses.
Developmental psychology. These psychologists conduct research on the cognitive, emotional, and social changes that occur across the lifespan.
Many work in research settings, although others work in schools and community agencies to help improve and evaluate the effectiveness of intervention programs such as Head Start.
Forensic psychology. Forensic psychologists apply psychological principles to understand the behavior of judges, attorneys, courtroom juries, and others in the criminal justice system.
Forensic psychologists work in the criminal justice system. They may testify in court and may provide information about the reliability of eyewitness testimony and jury selection.
Health psychology. Health psychologists are concerned with understanding how biology, behavior, and the social situation influence health and illness.
Health psychologists work with medical professionals in clinical settings to promote better health, conduct research, and teach at universities.
Industrial-organizational and environmental psychology. Industrial-organizational psychology applies psychology to the workplace with the goal of improving the performance and well-being of employees.
There are a wide variety of career opportunities in these fields, generally working in businesses. These psychologists help select employees, evaluate employee performance, and examine the effects of different working conditions on behavior. They may also work to design equipment and environments that improve employee performance and reduce accidents.
Personality psychology. These psychologists study people and the differences among them. The goal is to develop theories that explain the psychological processes of individuals, and to focus on individual differences.
Most work in academic settings, but the skills of personality psychologists are also in demand in businessfor instance, in advertising and marketing. PhD programs in personality psychology are often connected with programs in social psychology.
School and educational psychology. This field studies how people learn in school, the effectiveness of school programs, and the psychology of teaching.
School psychologists work in elementary and secondary schools or school district offices
with students, teachers, parents, and administrators. They may assess childrens psychological and learning problems and develop programs to minimize the impact of these problems.
Social and cross-cultural psychology. This field examines peoples interactions with other people. Topics of study include conformity, group behavior, leadership, attitudes, and person perception.
Many social psychologists work in marketing, advertising, organizational, systems design, and other applied psychology fields.
Sports psychology. This field studies the psychological aspects of sports behavior. The goal is to understand the psychological factors that influence performance in sports, including the role of exercise and team interactions.
Sports psychologists work in gyms, schools
, professional sports teams, and other areas where sports are practiced.
7. Material for activization of students during lecture, questions, tasks, problem situations, illustrative material.
Presentation
8. Materials for self-training of students for lecture
1. Prepare one of the three presentations: “Wilhelm Wundt”, “Sigismund Freud”, “John B.
Watson”. Be ready to answer the questions: What country did they live and work in?
What is their principal contribution to scientific psychology? What do you know about their role in the development of psychology?
2. Write an essay of about 150 words on the branch of psychology. In your essay you are supposed not only to analyse the characteristic features of that branch but also to state whether you would like to specialize in that branch or not and to give reasons for your positive or negative decision.
3. Find and write down to your dictionary the meaning of these words: behavior, thought- process, emotion, motivation, relationship, potential, pathology, spirit, soul, contribution, prediction.
9. The recommended literature:
1. Classics in Psychology. Edited by Thorne Shipley. – New York, 1961.
2. Endler N. S. Persons, situations, and their interactions. In A. I. Rabin, J. Aronoff, A. M. Barclay, R. A. Zucker (Eds.). Further explorations in personality. – New York : Wiley, 1981.
3. Gleitman Henry. Basic Psychologу // Henry Gleitman. – New York, London. 1992.
4. Lamіe J. T. The psychology of personality : An epistemological inquiry // J. T. Lamіe. – New York : Columbia University Press, 1987.
5. Maksymenko S. General psychology // Sergey Maksymenko. – Vinnytsya, Nova knyha, 2005.
6. Mіsсhe I. W. Introduction to personality // I. W. Mіsсhe. – New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston,1976.
Methodical development
of lecture prepared
METHODICAL DEVELOPMENT OF LECTURE ON THE SUBJECT
“BASICS OF PSYCHOLOGY. BASICS OF PEDAGOGICS”
Subject Basics of psychology. Basics of pedagogics.
Module № 1 Basics of psychology
Substantial module № 1 Basics of psychology.
Topic of lecture The concept of personality. Personality and activities.
Psychological compatibility and conflict in interpersonal relations. Consulting in the context of incurable disease, death. The concept of counseling, counseling skills, ethical principles. Features counseling those affected by the fighting.
Course I
Faculty Stomatological. Medical.
Number of class periods: 2 hours
1. Scientific and methodical justification of a subject
Relevance of a subject:
the knowledge of this subject will help students to understand psychological theories of the personality in domestic and foreign psychology2. Specific aims:
to consider psychological theories of the personality in foreign and domestic psychology.3. Purposes of development of the identity of future expert:
awareness of the importance of psychology and pedagogical impact of the doctor by students on patients.4. Basic knowledge, abilities, skills necessary for studying of a subject:
Names of the previous disciplines Received skills
Biology To classify methods of psychology and to
know specifics of their application.
5. Plan and organization of structure of lecture
№ Main stages of lecture
Type of Lecture. The Ways of students’
activization. materials of methodical providing
Distribution of the time
1.
Preparatory stage
The knowledge of this subject will help students to understand psychological theories of the personality in domestic and foreign psychology.
5 %
Student may consider psychological theories of the personality in foreign and domestic psychology.
2. Main stage
Introductory lecture Plan
1. The concept of personality.
2. Psycho-analytic, trait, social-cognitive and humanistic theories of personality.
3. Factors influencing personality development.
4. Psychological adaptation and its mechanisms.
5. The role of a shock in forming of adaptive and disadaptive reactions.
6. Mechanisms of psychological protection.
85%-90%
3.
Final stage
Recommended literature:
1. History of Psychology [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа :
http://www.agape-biblia.
org/plugins/pract-ministries/Lect201.htm 2. Understanding Clinical Methods in Psychology [Электронный ресурс]. –
Режим доступа :
http://www.answers.com/Q/Different_methods _ of_psychology
3. Personality [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа :
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality 4. Personality models [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа: http://
changingminds.org/explanations/personality/
personality.htm
5 %
6. Content of lecture:
1. THE CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY
The term personality is used in a number of ways including the apparent features of a person. However, psychologists use it to refer to the characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting. By characteristic pattern we mean the consistent and distinctive ways our ideas, feelings and actions are organized. When we talk about personality we usually refer to the totality or whole of the person. The enduring pattern expressed by the person in various situations is the hall mark of personality. The unique impression that a person makes on others is equally important in understanding personality. The concept of personality has been defined by psychologists in many ways.
No single theory is able to cover the total personality. The different theories approach the structure and functioning of personality from different positions. There are many theories of personality each provides different answers about the way they treat the issues about personality functioning. In the present lesson you will learn about four major theoretical perspectives of personality. They include psychoanalytic, trait, humanistic and social-cognitive perspectives.
2. PSYCHO-ANALYTIC, TRAIT, SOCIAL-COGNITIVE AND HUMANISTIC THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
THE PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE
Founded by Sigmund Freud, this theory emphasizes the influence of the unconscious, the importance of sexual and aggressive instincts, and early childhood experience on a person. This theory has been very influential not only in psychology but also in literary circles, art, psychiatry and films. Many of Freud’s ideas have become part and parcel of every day usage. Freud started his career as a neurologist. His theory developed in the course of his observations of his patients, as well as, self analysis. He used free association to help his patients recover forgotten memories.
Freud discovered that mind is like an iceberg and we have limited conscious awareness. Freud proposed that psychological forces operate at three levels of awareness:
Conscious level: The thoughts, feelings, and sensations that one is aware of at the present moment.
Preconscious level: It contains information of which one is not currently aware, however, they can easily enter conscious mind.
Unconscious level: It consists of thought, feelings, wishes, drives etc. of which we are not aware. It, however, influences our conscious level of activity.
Freud thought that unconscious material often seeks to push through to the conscious level in a disguised manner. It may be in a distorted manner and or it may take a symbolic form.
Interpretation of dreams and free association were used for analysis of the three levels of awareness.
Personality Structure
We study personality in Freid's picture. Freud believed that human personality emerges due to a conflict between our aggressive and pleasure seeking biological impulses and the internalized social restraints against them. Thus, personality arises in the course of our effort to resolve the conflicts. To this end he proposed three structures which interact with each other: Id, Ego and Super Ego. Let us learn about these structures:
Id: It is the unconscious, irrational part of personality. It is the primitive part immune to morality and demands of the external world. It operates on the pleasure principle. It seeks immediate satisfaction.
Ego: It is involved with the workings of the real world. It operates on the reality principle. It is the conscious, and rational part of personality that regulates thoughts and behaviors. It teaches the person to balance demands of external world and needs of the person.
Super Ego: It is the internal representation of parental and societal values. It works as the voice of conscience, that compels the ego to consider not only the real but also the ideal. It judges one’s behaviors as right or wrong, good or bad. Failing up to moral ideals bring about the shame, guilt, inferiority and anxiety in the person.
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
On the basis of case-history of patients, Freud reached at a conclusion that personality development occurs through a sequence of psychosexual stages. In these stages the Id’s pleasure seeking tendency focuses on different areas of body.
Table 1 shows these stages.
Table1: Stages of Psychosexual Development
Stages Focus of activity
Oral
(0-18 months)
Anal (18-36 months) Phallic(4 to 6 years) Latency(7 to 11 years)
Pleasure centers in the mouth and leads to activities of sucking and biting etc.
Pleasure centers on bowel and bladder elimination.
Pleasure canter is genitals Touching and fondling of genitals give pleasure
Children repress their sexual impulses and
Genital
(From the onset of puberty)
channelize them into socially acceptable activities such as sports, arts.
Pleasure zone is the genital. Maturation of sexual interests.
THE TRAIT PERSPECTIVE
Traits are characteristic behaviors and conscious motives. They represent a relatively stable and enduring predisposition to behave in a given way. Traits are frequently used in describing people. The focus of trait approach is very common and involves enumerating list of personal characteristics. Trait theories of personality identify, describe and measure individual differences. The apparent traits are called surface traits (e.g. happy, cordial). Contrary to this there are certain source traits.
Raymond Cattell developed a trait theory which has 16 source traits. He called them personality factors. Some of them are: Reserved-Outgoing, Serious-Happygo-lucky, Practical- Imaginative and Relaxed-Tense.
Eysenck proposed a theory which classifies people in four types: introverted-neurotic, introverted- stable, extraverted- neurotic and extraverted- stable. In subsequent work Eysenck proposed psychoticism as another dimension of personality.
Recently McCrae and Costa have proposed a five factor model, comprising of neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness and conscientiousness. Traits are used to describe behavior and make prediction.
However, human behavior is an outcome of interaction between traits and
situations. Hence, the situations chosen and consistency in responding to situations indicate the value of traits.
It is said that the trait theories do not explain the personality of a person. They tell us little about the causes of individual difference, and the dynamic processes are neglected.
THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
This perspective was developed by Albert Bandura. It views behavior as influenced by the interaction between persons and the social context. It is proposed that our thoughts and actions originate in the social world but it is essential to note that human beings have capacity for self-regulation and engage in active cognitive processes. Their interrelationships are shown in Fig.1
Fig. 1 Reciprocal determinism of Behaviors, Cognition and Environment
Bandura developed the concept of self-efficacy which incorporates a person’s cognitive skills, abilities and attitudes as represented in one’s self-system. Self-efficacy indicates the degree to which one is convinced of the abilities and effectiveness in meeting the demands of a particular situation. The theory is based on laboratory research. However, the theory ignores the unconscious factors which may influence behavior. The theory also emphasizes the rational side of life while ignoring the emotional side.
Cognitive factors
Environmental factors Behavioural
factors
The cognitive-social theory brings into focus the role of thought and memory in personality. We often find that the expectations and skills learned by people are very important in determining behaviors.
THE HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE
These theories propose that within each individual is an active creative force, often called
“self”. This force seeks expression. It develops and grows. This perspective, also known as the third force, emphasizes on human potential and characteristics like self-awareness and free will.
It views human beings as innately good. The conscious and subjective perception of self is considered very important. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow are the main proponents of the humanistic perspective.
Abraham Maslow proposed the idea of self actualized people. He proposed that human motives are arranged in a hierarchy of needs. Maslow notes that the self actualized people have realistic perception, are spontaneous, easily accept self and others, are creative, and enjoy and appreciate positive aspects of life, like privacy and independence.
Carl Rogers thinks that the basic human motive is actualizing tendency. It is the innate drive to maintain and enhance the human organism. Rogers observed that people are motivated to act in accordance with their self concept. They deny or distort the experiences that are contrary to their self-concept. The ideal condition for development is unconditional positive regard. His notion of a fully functioning individual is that the self-concept is flexible and evolving. It holds an optimistic view of human beings.
ASSESSING HUMAN PERSONALITY
In view of the fact that the knowledge about personality is useful in many settings researchers have developed a variety of tools for its assessment. These tools can be categorized into three types namely observational, self-report and projective.
The observational tools include interview, rating of a person in one or many situations.
Projective tests are a special kind of test in which ambiguous material is used and the person whose personality is being tested has to give his or her own meaning or interpretation. Thus, it is expected that the personality of the examinee will be projected in the response given by him or her. Two of the famous projective tests are Rorschach Ink Blot Test and Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). In the Ink Blot test a person is shown a set of 10 symmetrical ink blots and asked to say what he or she sees in each of them. The response given is interpreted by the psychologist. In the TAT certain photographs are shown and the person has to develop a story describing the situation with regard to its past, present and future.
The story narrated by the person is coded and analyzed by the psychologist. It must be noted that the use and interpretation of various personality tests requires professional training.
3. FACTORS INFLUENCING PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
The development of personality of an individual takes place in a socio-cultural context.
The particular potentialities with which a child is born may develop or become stunted depending on the way maturation takes place and the kind of experiences encountered by the person. In the process of growth and development people develop unique configuration of traits which lead to individual differences.
In this way one finds that personality formation is a complex process depending upon common and unique experiences on the one hand, and, genetic factors on the other. It has been indicated that there are stable ways in which specific situation trigger specific patterns of thought, feeling and behavior.
(1) Genetic factors: Almost all theorists consider heredity as a major determinant of personality. Some like Freud, view personality as purely biological.
However, others recognize the value of social and cultural factors. In fact it
would be wrong to view the question in either or manner and give more emphasis to heredity or environment. Studies of behavior genetics suggest that most personality variables are 15 to 50 percent inheritable.
(2) Early experience: Most of the theorists of personality think that personality development is a continuous process. The early years play very important role in the shaping of personality. However, the immediate environment and experiences are also found to be of immense value.
(3) Primary groups: While explaining personality development family is found to play a critical role. The early relationships with members of family are particularly important. Freud thought that many of the problems during adult life are due to problematic child rearing practices leading to emotional disturbances. The sense of identity and relevance of appropriate modeling has been emphasized.
(4) Culture: People living in one culture often share similar practices, beliefs and values.
The child is expected to learn to behave in the manner expected by the culture. For instance boys and girls are expected to show different sets of personality characteristics. The various occupational roles are also shaped by culture. However, the effect of culture may not be uniform for everyone belonging to that culture because they are transmitted through different ways and persons and people also have certain unique experiences.
4. PSYCHOLOGICAL ADAPTATION AND MECHANISMS OF ADAPTATION Psychological Adaptation – a state of harmony between internal needs and external demands and the processes used in achieving this condition. A psychological adaptation, also known as evolved psychological mechanism (EPM). It could serve a specific purpose, have served a purpose in the past, or be a side-effect of another EPM.
Mechanisms of adaptation are developed during the process of evolution and provide us opportunity to survive in conditions of continuously changing world. Adaptation – is a dynamical process due to which the moving systems of living organisms, despite changing conditions, can support themselves in proper order (are able to live and reproduce themselves).
5. THE ROLE OF A SHOCK IN FORMING OF ADAPTIVE AND DISADAPLIVE REACTIONS
Shock – is the stance of organism when normal adaptive reaction is not enough. It has specialized syndrome which consists from nonspecific reactions of organism. Shock is the reply of organism on irritators which can seriously hurt organism.
The main streak needed for the shock took place is feeling of danger which depends on:
1. Real situation
2. Personality's specialties 3. Experience
The following scheme can describe this process.
Alert – is a signal of adaptation dysfunction. The key functions of alert are defensive and motivative (like functions of pain) but pain reflects already existing danger in difference of alert which warns about danger.
Situation Danger Cognitive
processes
Stimuli Personality
Danger
Alert
Vegetative processes
Emotional processes
Abnormal behavior – is caused by inner conflict of personality. And conflict is the result of shock.
6. MECHANISMS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PROTECTION There several types of these mechanisms like:
1. Oust – transfer the unpleasant minds to sub consciousness. But transferred material does not become forgotten and is able to get back to our consciousness.
2. Suppression – evading the minds which are unpleasant. (Like thinking about something else).
3. Projection – when person gives it's characteristic to another forgetting about the mistakes in their own experience. (We think that these feelings are not ours).
4. Regression – we activate our memory trying to remember something good or life before conflict.
5. Identification – following the examples of other people.
6. Sublimation – transforming unpleasant tendentious into socially good actions which are prized by society.
There are different ways to explain the meaning of personality.
Personality – socialized individ which reasonable transforms environment. Individ – is a representative of homo sapience, individually existing organism. Individuality – is a combination of the streaks and specialties of human. Personality – is not a reward. You can only become a personality. Personality in ontogenesis is formed very late.
Personality is defined by:
1. what and how it knows;
2. what and how it prizes;
3. what and how it creates;
4. with whom and how it communicates;
5. what hierarchy of its motives.
7. Material for activization of students during lecture, questions, tasks, problem situations, illustrative material.
Presentation
8. Materials for self-training of students for lecture
Prepare the presentations: Common Psychology and its role in professional activity of a doctor
9. The recommended literature:
1. History of Psychology [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа : http://www.agape- biblia. org/plugins/pract-ministries/Lect201.htm
2. Understanding Clinical Methods in Psychology [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа : http://www.answers.com/Q/Different_methods_of_psychology
3. Personality [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа :
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personality
4. Personality models [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим
доступа: http://changingminds.org/explanations/personality/ personality.htm
Methodical development of lecture prepared
Candidate of Pedagogical Science,
Assistant E. N. Shevchenko -
METHODICAL DEVELOPMENT OF LECTURE ON THE SUBJECT
“BASICS OF PSYCHOLOGY. BASICS OF PEDAGOGICS”
Subject Basics of psychology. Basics of pedagogics.
Module № 1 Basics of psychology
Substantial module № 1 Basics of psychology.
Topic of lecture Characteristics of the main features of attention, sensation and perception.
The concept and characteristics of memory, thought and imagination.
Course I
Faculty Stomatological. Medical.
Number of class periods: 2 hours
1. Scientific and methodical justification of a subject
Relevance of a subject:
the knowledge of this subject will help students to understand psychological theories of memory, thinking and emotional.2. Specific aims:
to consider psychological theories of physiological mechanisms of memory, thinking and emotional.3. Purposes of development of the identity of future expert:
awareness of the importance of psychology and pedagogical impact of the doctor by students on patients.4. Basic knowledge, abilities, skills necessary for studying of a subject:
Names of the previous disciplines Received skills
Biology To understand psychological theories of
memory, thinking and emotional.
5. Plan and organization of structure of lecture
№ Main stages of lecture
Type of Lecture. The Ways of students’
activization. materials of methodical providing
Distribution of the time
1.
Preparatory stage
The knowledge of this subject will help students to understand psychological theories of memory, thinking and emotional, to consider psychological theories of physiological mechanisms of memory, thinking and emotional.
5 %
2. Main stage
Introductory lecture Plan
1. Concept, physiological bases and structure of attention.
2. General properties and reflex
nature of senses.
3. Perception and its
85%-90%
classification.
4. Physiological bases, types,
processes of memory.
5.Mentality (thinking) as the supreme form of cognitive activity.
6.Thinking as an activity.
7.Imagination as a specific type of activity. Physiological bases of imagination.
8.Imagination as a "figurative mentality". Active role of imagination in problem situations and in conditions of deficit of information.
3.
Final stage
Recommended literature:
1. Genetic memory [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа :
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_memory_
(psychology)
2. Imagination [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа :
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagination 3. Introduction to thinking [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Introduction _to_thinking
4. Memory [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа :
http://psychology.about.com/od/memory/
5 %
6. Content of lecture:
1. Concept, physiological bases and structure of attention.
Attention is a special form of psychic activity which becomes apparent in the consciousness attitude and concentraction on the significant objects for personality, phenomena of the surrounding reality or one’s own experiences.
Acording to the study of I. P. Pavlov and O. O. Uhtomskiy about higher neural activity, attention has a reflex character, it is a specific reaction of an organism to changes which take place in the surrounding reality or to appearance of the object and event that have vital importance for a man.
Types of attention
Intentional attention is knowingly directed and regulated by a personalety. It occurs when a man poses definite problems and works for a long period of time on their solution. The appearance of intentional attention is connected with the usage of volitional efforts.
Unintentional attention is provoked by the object and events without deliberate intention of a man to be attentive, thus attention is totally determined by the properties of an object. Strong unexpected sound, bright light, unusual things and other irritants can attract such kind of attention.
Post-intentional attention combines characteristics both of intentional and unintentional attention. It has purposeful character (as intentional attention does) does not require constant volitional efforts.
It is peculiar to all types of attention the following properties.
Consentration of attention is a capacity of a man in his/her activity to concentrate jn the main things and digress from the secondary ones. It is a digree of concentration on an object.
Persistence of attention is a capacity of a man to concentrate for a more or less long period of time on a chosen object or activity. This property of attention is characterized by the time during which the man’s activity preserves its purposefulness in spite of activity of foreign irritants.
Distraction is a property opposed to persistence. It lies in an incapacity of a man to direct his/her consciousness to a certain object for a long period of time.
Inattention is a continual switching from one object to the other.
Attention volume is a capacity of a man to reflect simultaneously in his/her brain more or less number of objects for a unit time. The average volume of attention is considered when a person can perceive 4-6 objects.
Attention distribution is a capacity of a man to manage to do several kinds of activity simultaneously and efficiently.
Switch of attention is a capacity of a man to proceed rapidly and precisely from one actions to others, from one objects to others.
Attention properties of a man are not inborn. They are product and development of a personality, a result of his/her education and upbringing.
Individual distinctions of people’s attention are mainly explained by the difference in the conditions of their lives, education and upbringing.
The objective reality is reflected in out brains in different forms. The simplest form of its reflection are feelings.
2. Sense as a simple psyhic process. Its properties.
Sensation is an education psychic process which consists in the reflecting by the brain separate properties of objects and events of the objective reality and also states of an organis under their influence on the senses, or receptors.
The material organ of sense is an analyzer. The organs of sense of a main receive, select, accumulate information and transmit it to the brain.
Depending on the contact measure of the sense-organs with irritants one can distinguish palpable, gustatory, pain and distant (visual, auditory, olfactory) sensitivity contact.
According to the position of receptors in the organism – on the surface, inside of the organism, in the muscles and tendons – there are different types of sensations. They are the following:
- the exteroceptive sensations - which reflect the characteristics of objects and phenomena of the outside world (vision, auditory, smell, taste sensations);
- the interoceptive sensations - that send information about the state of the internal organs (the sense of hunger; the sense of thirst; the sense of fatigue) to the brain;
- the propreoceptive sensations - they reflect the movements of the parts of the body and also the state of the body (kinesthetic and static sensations);
- the temperature sensations (which are the function of the special temperature analyzer that carries out heat regulation and exchange of the body with the environment) belong to independent sensations. The temperature sensations are part of tactile sensations.
3. Perception as a cognitive process. Its properties. Types of perception.
Perception is a reflection in the consciousness of a man of the objects and events of the objective reality in general in consequence of their direct impact on the senses.
In the process of perception we do not just reflect something that sounds or smells, but we see the landscape, ppicture, hear the car horn, etc.
Depending on the content of the objects perception can be of the following types:
perception of natural phenomenon, oral speech, pictures, music, movies, works of art, sport competitions, etc.
The perceived object sxist in space, time and movement. All the objects of reality have shape, volume, position there is a distance among them. These properties of object are called
spatial. Thus, perception of object volume depends first of all on the volume of object image on retina.
Perception of space is a method of cognition of the object properties via eye, vestibular, moving and skin feetings. It is a complex process which is realized means of different analyzers.
Perception of time is a reflection of durability, consistency and speed of events which happened in the objective reality. Manipulating with different notions of time a man their help measure time. There is no special analyzers for time perception.
Perception of movements is a reflection of space transference of objects which are determined by their remoteness, velocity of transference during a definite period of time. The main role in perception of movement is played by eye and kinesthetic analyzers. These analyzers represent orientation and speed of object movements.
Illusion is an erroneous perception of the objective world which shows up under the influence of exterior irritants or disease state of neural system. Illusion can be provoked by different reasons: unfavourable condions environment (fog, darkness) defects in the organs of sense (deafness, myopia), tense expectation, emotional irritation and so on.
Main properties of perception are following:
Objectivity is a perception property which shows up in comparison of vivid image of perception with certain object of the real world or event of the objective reality.
Integrity is a perception property which lies in the reflection of objects in the aggregate of their properties, structural unity of the components of perception, event if by a separate feature it is considered the object in its entirety versatility: by amell – substance, by shape – object, etc.
Constancy is a relative permanency of the object image of perception. Thus, constancy of object oerception consists in that we perceive the shape and volume regardless of its location relative to the eye. Thus, round objects are perceived as round objects in spite of that at certain angle they are displayed on retina in shape of ellipse.
Comprehension is an underatanging of the core of the perceiving object, its appointment, belonging to a definite group, class, category of objects: schools as educational establishments, parks as places for relaxation, sport ground as a place to go in for sport etc.
Selectivity is a perception property which is determined by incorrectness experience, interests, purposes and emotional states of a person, and consists in primary selectivity of one objects in comparison with the other ones.
Apperception is a property which lies in dependency of perception on the previous personal experience of a man, his/her knowledge, interests, urgent necessities.
4. Physiological bases, types, processes of memory.
Memory- it's remembering, saving and recalling in mind of individual person his experience.
Processes of memory: remembering, saving, reproducing (recalling) and forgetting.
Memory - it's important characteristic of person's mental (psychical) life. We can't say, that the role of memory - it's only fixing of past things. (An image of a past psychologists call ideas).And we can't imagine any actual action behind the process of memory, because a duration of any simple psychological act foresees the keeping of each its element for "coupling"
it with another element.
Memory ensures the unity and integrity of human personality. For now scientists don't have one clear and finished theory of memory. The mechanisms and regularities ("laws") of memory can be described on the levels:
• psychological;
• neurophysiological;
• biochemical;
• kibernetical
